levels of measurement criminal justice

In other words, the units of measurement here (first, second, third) are not necessarily equal (Kranzler, 2018). Other national surveys that focus on specific problems, such as delinquency, violence against women, and child abuse, also provide important data on crime, victims, and offenders. 611 611 333 333 333 333 722 722 722 722 When we say that someone is witty, we are making a _____ assertion. 1. /Count 19 13 0 obj 1 We also estimate race- and ethnicity-specific models to study whether criminal justice contacts have uniform or distinct effects across sociodemographic groups, which is particularly important in light of the . Myth: Police Only Write Speeding Tickets to Harass Citizens and it is Entrapment., 7.1. Importance of Policy in Criminal Justice, 4.4. The five response categories are often believed to represent an Interval level of measurement. Available funds generally are reserved for studies that potentially have a direct impact on policy; support for longitudinal or methodological studies for the most part simply is not there. 556 500 444 444 444 444 444 444 667 444 In their paper, McCleary, Wiebe, and Turbow also demonstrated the potential biases created by screening respondents to select out rare subgroups of interest. Statistical conclusion validity refers to whether a researcher is able to determine two variables are related. Besides convenience to the research participants, one other reason why a researcher might request less specific, nominal, or ordinal data would be to protect anonymity of respondents. endobj Revisiting the example of runners completing a race, if we had the times that each runner crossed the finish line, we would not only know their rank order, but we would be able to tell the exact distance between the winner, second-place finisher, third-place finisher, and so on. Additionally, the cardinal rule of subject selection and experimentation is the comparability of the experimental and control groups. /Type /Outlines PIs conduct deep online or in-person research; retrace steps of an investigation and gather evidence; interview victims, suspects and witnesses; perform background and records checks; and conduct surveillance. Variables attributes that have only the characteristics of exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness are _____. Create your own flash cards! 2018-01-17T12:53:32+02:00 /Parent 2 0 R \text{Revenue}&&&\text{Credit}\\ As noted above, crime and victimization are rare events. Criminal Justice Salaries. For many hard-to-identify subpopulations, such as people with disabilities and abused children, there is no large, well-defined group from which to draw a sample for measuring victimizationin other words, a sampling frame. Such problems include nonreporting and false reporting, nonstandard definitions of events, difficulties associated with asking sensitive questions, sampling problems such as coverage and nonresponse, and an array of other factors involved in conducting surveys of individuals and implementing official data reporting systems. Typically the independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect. The ecological fallacy refers to the danger of making assertions about individuals as the unit of analysis based on the _____ or other aggregations. Although these data collection systems do many things right, they are, like any such system, beset with the methodological problems of surveys in general as well as particular problems associated with measuring illicit, deviant, and deleterious activities. 0 Reviews. criminal justice studies include crime, recidivism, police patrol, etc. >> Workshop participants recognized the need to be pragmatic. Paper commissioned for the Committee on Law and Justice, Workshop on Measurement Problems in Criminal Justice Research, July 2000, National Research Council, Washington, DC. Using self-reports in longitudinal studies, especially ones that cover major portions of the life course, creates a new set of challenges. /Subtype /XML /F2 11 0 R % /A 28 0 R Much of the work assessing how crime is measured focuses on data collected in the United States. aggregate patterns of behavior are so regular. This volume of the series was designed to provide a comprehensive primer on the existing best practices and emerging developments in the study and design research on crime and criminology. /Count 39 "Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child" Myth/Controversy, 3.3. 333 500 500 278 278 500 278 778 500 500 Substantive Law: Community-Based Sentences, 4.1. 8 0 obj . Cambridge: Harvard University Press. How might more accurate figures serve the public interest? Paper commissioned for the Committee on Law and Justice, Workshop on Measurement Problems in Criminal Justice Research, July 2000, National Research Council, Washington, DC. /Type /Font Last April, the DC Justice Lab and FWD.us commissioned HIT Strategies to poll registered voters in Washington, D.C., about the city's Revised Criminal Code Act (RCCA) and found that 83 percent . Two chapters follow this introduction. Review the following two articles: Griffin, M.L, Hogan, N.L., Lambert, E.G., Tucker-Gail, K.A., and Baker, D. N. (2010). >> 667 667 389 389 389 389 722 722 778 778 ii. An example is college GPA. Nominal scales Nominal scales contain the least amount of information. Similarly, there has been increased focus in local-area criminal activity. << I once supervised a student thesis on drug use in college. This report provides information that was presented at the workshop. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. /Count 41 Biological and Psychological Positivism, 6.4. ratio measurement would be a great way to gather such information. Measurements are performed using an omnidirectional sound source located at least 3 m from the nearest wall according to ISO 14257. Evaluating the impact of nontraditional survey methodologies. Ready to take your reading offline? 333 980 389 333 722 778 444 722 250 333 Frequently Asked Questions About Level of Measurement. 2000 Combining Information from Multiple Sources for Small Area Estimation of Victimization Rates. A brief summary of the topics addressed in the other two commissioned papers appears below. The classic survey sampling problems of response and coverage are of special concern when attempting to measure stigmatized and other deleterious events. Define /Title (Statistics for Criminology and Criminal Justice 4th Edition Bachman Solutions Manual) In doing so, be sure to delineate the differences among the various levels of measurement. The difference between height scores is quantifiable, e.g. The sample in the NCVS has shrunk because of flat funding over the past 25 years, from 60,000 households (in 1974) to the current level of 42,000 households (Patsy Klaus, senior statistician, Bureau of Justice Statistics, personal communication, 7/24/02). A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. In his paper, T.E. /Kids [6 0 R 7 0 R 8 0 R] In general, criminal victimization is a relatively rare eventthat is, in any given reference period, the majority of respondents do not report any victimization. Additional Criminal Justice Flashcards Cards have an ad free experience! In Levels of Measurement, I explain the meaning of the four major levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. endobj Unstable rates are problematic because a change of only a few events in the numerator can result in large changes in rates. One discussant summarized this paper as an excellent exposition on why context matters. /FirstChar 32 << The following table summarizes the rules of debit and credit. The credibility of empirical findings, however, depends on the validity of the maintained assumptions. 9 0 obj \text{Dividends}&\text{Credit}&\text{Credit}&\\ Public attention to crime and victimization often focuses on particular subgroups in which deviant behavior may be most troublesome. That is necessary, as statistical software will not run any tests when the variable attributes are input as words. Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justi, Basics of Research Methods Criminal Justice &, Unit 4 APUSH Practice Multiple Choice Questio. Criminal justice experiments are almost always conducted in _____. Because criminal justice encompasses so many different fields, salaries can vary significantly depending on your specialization, training, and location. This volume of the series was designed to provide a comprehensive primer . %PDF-1.5 A control group offsets the effects of the experiment itself. Day-to-day communication is made possible through general but often vague and unspoken agreements about the use of terms. Without crime, there is no need for the criminal justice system. Interval-level data can go below zero, so a good example of data at this level would be the air temperature. Write a paragraph about the history of the Northeast that includes the words culture hearth, cuneiform, qanat, natural boundary, embargo, and ziggurat. /CreationDate (D:20151205224045+07'00') stream /Creator (testbanklive.com) The participants focused on the importance of two overriding issues: (1) there are significant and substantive measurement problems with the existing surveys that are likely to remain unresolved without additional funding support; (2) priorities need to be established so that the available resources devoted to these issues can be used most effectively. Criminal / By admin. They are concepts, measurement operations, evaluation of measures, and levels of measurement. Crimes are generally graded into four categories: felonies, misdemeanors, felony-misdemeanors, and infractions. /FontDescriptor 30 0 R THESE PAPERS WERE DESIGNED PRIMARILY FOR THE USE OF THE STAFF OF THE OFFICE OF EVALUATION OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF LAW ENFORCEMENT AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE. 722 556 667 722 722 1000 722 722 667 333 /F3 12 0 R See Answer >> /F1 10 0 R %PDF-1.5 611 778 778 333 333 444 444 350 500 1000 Social scientists study _____ that compose them. Parental involvement in the criminal justice system is found to have a detrimental effect on children's . Being exhaustive means that the researcher should be able to classify _____. Essentially, an experiment examines the effect of _____. As such, it is important to understand how each program collects and reports crime data, and the limitations associated with the data. We apprehend, try, and punish offenders by means of a loose confederation of agencies at all levels of government. Variables designated as the independent and dependent variables do not always maintain the same designation. 14 0 obj because criminal justice researchers often use all variations of social science research. A review of the 1999 UCR data posted on the FBIs web site indicates that six statesIllinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Montana, and New Hampshirereport only limited data. /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding /Resources << >> A _____ eliminates this possibility because neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control. The most conventional type of experiment in the natural and the social sciences involves three major pairs of components: (1) independent and dependent variables, (2) pretesting and post-testing, and (3) experimental and control groups. in /nfs/c05/h04/mnt/113983/domains/toragrafix.com/html/wp-content . endobj For many research and policy questions, it is important to analyze crime data at a relatively low level of aggregation, such as county or even census tract. (5 points) 2. Sixty percent of these arrests occurred during years 4 through 9. While the basic idea is both simple and appealing, screening for low-incidence events or cases can lead to substantial and systematic misreporting errors. 278 389 422 500 333 500 500 444 500 444 500 500 500 500 200 500 333 760 276 500 1 0 obj \text{Stockholders' Equity:}&&&\\ Chapter 3, a paper by Terence P. Thornberry and Marvin D. Krohn, is on the strengths and weaknesses of the self-report method in studies of offenders, and how to make improvements. endobj 778 389 500 778 667 944 722 778 611 778 4 0 obj The numbers next to the sports do not rank them in level of importance, international popularity, television ratings, or anything else. The NCVS and other surveys discussed in this report are large-scale social surveys that rely on self-reports of offenses or victimization. >> This is essentially pre-test. The Role of the Legislature. <> Most major crime in this country emanates from two major data sources. MFJ's performance measures provide a comprehensive picture of how cases are being handled across counties from arrest to post-conviction. Crime and Criminal Justice / Measurement of Crime 1.1 What is Crime? Reliability refers to the fact whether a particular measurement technique, applied repeatedly to the same thing, will yield the same result each time. /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding Biden signing the measure would put an end to a protracted and involved effort at criminal justice reform that Washington undertook in 2006. Academic library - free online college e textbooks - info{at}ebrary.net - 2014 - 2023. Participants noted that many of the papers commissioned to support the redesign of the NCVS are buried in archives or personally held files; as a result, a handful of government officials and scholars know more about how to solve some of these problems than many academics and policy officials realize, but the kind of careful experimentation with different methods, which is required to develop standards against which things can be measured, has not taken place. C}%a zw? x>$'0{_,k5;;nn ^ $Iw;A%,>0ti]x0 . \Q\P2[`NdA>!~^ojbFy?W.O=.v/=Ss4Nj[b\`6/bI d6*8t ?JxO _b]fgkMQN#Jiu/lOeTT9H# T}SRxq(O"*(n4`S:74%G-p`kQ-hs3 jtq0\n("[JYk /Subtype /Type1 THE SECOND PAPER, 'A CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR EFFECTIVENESS MEASUREMENT OF LAW ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITIES,' ATTEMPTS TO DEMONSTRATE A LOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO DETERMINE A METHODOLOGY OR FAMILY OF METHODOLOGIES FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF LAW ENFORCEMENT EFFECTIVENESS AND TO SUGGEST WHICH TOPIC AREAS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT IN ORDER TO HAVE EVALUATIVE PROCESSES YIELD 'EMPIRICAL TRUTHS.' endobj /Parent 3 0 R The IRBs reasoning was that someone who knew which college courses received the survey could use the students sex, age, and GPA answers to learn respondents identities. /First 26 0 R Reviews aren't verified, but Google checks for and removes fake content when it's identified. Define the term nominal variable and provide an example not included in the [] 500 1000 500 500 333 1000 556 333 1000 778 444 480 200 480 541 778 500 778 333 500 667 778 778 333 333 500 500 350 500 1000 Law enforcement agencies report arrest data for 21 additional crime categories. /MediaBox [0 0 612 792] Three broad and interrelated distinctions are described as ways to conduct social scientific research: (1) idiographic and nomothetic explanations, (2) inductive and deductive reasoning, and (3) quantitative and qualitative data, however that's misleading ______. Many participants argued for a more systematic analysis comparing and contrasting the understanding of crime and victimization in self-report and official data. Kolb's four experiential learnings stages of experience, reflection, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation are assessed using the Experiential Learning Variables and Indicators Scale (ELVIS) to provide a composite measure of 700 monitoring reports . 1 0 obj Here, local and federal jurisdiction intersect and clash in ways that have no analog elsewhere in the country. Differences noted between the first and second measurements on the dependent variable are then attributed to the influence of the _____. xZKsFWi $rTIle}XH"! Ratio-level data can never go below zero. /Rotate 0 or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one. It seems to me that these levels on measurement can be used together to compare. There are four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. The Crime Control and Due Process Models, 1.12. For example, if there was only one 22-year-old female with a 3.97 GPA in that particular class, someone with access to the university database could determine who filled out that survey. Furthermore, extreme rates (high or low) are often the result of inherent variability (noise) rather than true extremes in the phenomenon. This report reviews (1) the history of the UCR, the NIBRS, and the NCVS; (2) the methods each program uses to collect crime data; and (3) the limitations of the 4 0 obj Nominal Level: The simplest measuring kind includes giving categories names or labels. 556 556 444 389 333 556 500 722 500 500 333 1000 389 333 722 778 444 722 250 333 An official website of the United States government, Department of Justice. Congress periodically requires the U.S. Department of Justice to develop new research or data collection efforts to measure crime victimization in specific populations and for small areas. . 15 0 obj 556 889 500 500 333 1000 500 333 944 778 Edited volume that includes papers covering methodological and analytical issues related to the measurement of crime and the functioning of the criminal justice system. Street Crime, Corporate Crime, and White-Collar Crime, 1.13. 2 0 obj These data collection systems utilize different methods of measuring criminal behavior. /Length 1310 John Wiley & Sons, Apr 28, 2016 - Social Science - 600 pages. IN THE FIRST PAPER, 'PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM,' THE MEASUREMENT OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE IS DERIVED FROM AN INITIAL CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE TOTAL SOCIAL COST ASSOCIATED WITH CRIME AND CRIME CONTROL AND THE NET COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SERVICE PROVIDED BY THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. Police Misconduct, Accountability, and Corruption, 6.9. A second example, which was explored in detail by McCleary and colleagues, centers on the victimization of persons with disabilities, and particularly persons with cognitive or developmental disabilities, and the extent to which a high percentage of false positivespersons identifying themselves as disabled when they are not from general population samples can distort any estimates of the correlates of that particular category.2. Measuring Crime and Crime Victimization: Methodological Issues, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Measurement Problems in Criminal Justice Research: Workshop Summary. This approach depends on the availability of a good set of predictorsthat is, detailed dataand the credibility of the assumptions used in the prediction model. Job involvement, job stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment and the burnout of correctional staff. Understand data and its importance, explore the definition and examples of the four levels of. % /F2 11 0 R One drawback to ordinal ranks, however, is that they do not distinguish the precise magnitude of the difference between ranks. While . 500 500 389 389 278 500 444 667 444 444 /Type /Outlines Generally measurement is the most important and difficult phase of criminal justice research. A Brief History of The Philosophies of Punishment, 8.7. 564 333 760 500 400 549 300 300 333 576 Additionally, provide at least three examples of each level of measurement (and the examples can NOT come from your book/notes). /Name /F1 /Type /Metadata 675 333 760 500 400 549 300 300 333 576 More important and substantive is the classification of crimes according to the severity of punishment. Since September 1930, the FBI has administered the program and currently collects information on the following crimes: murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. ',U"_/[59ZSm:YU$7id{Mzio%,'^CZ&p |-E${HwMA6~Byvj1y?ikfw%4iQwnhk+*j &Uz&xP^V@9,}~r5eQs=$CJMjqx@j@_99-/EZx|L&;;(39l!ES`\@:/E~ -YmkA\K07 {/E/$?|gujQVO+{{~t[R+|^60)%Y+VOWDo~FQ5y-*p7l7'`)h1o0T*U?IP=pp {+ZMFe('-+R$,e'C Ing6)zIb, -u[?hsZ)e/Q~+ '"1iQVmX(2K rnm0y > The highest levels of measurement (interval and ratio) are the most informative. Using the deductive approach, we reason from _____. What are the three different types of data sources we often rely on in CJ? /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding 1.2 The Criminal Justice System and Process The criminal justice system comprises various agencies from different levels of government, each of which have a mission to deal with some aspect of crime . about the scope and nature of crime problems. Our American system of justice has evolved from the English common law into a complex series of procedures and decisions. /Contents 21 0 R This suggests that, on balance and across states, higher spending on schools is leveraged to increase staffing quantities. Ratio is the final level of measurement, and the only difference between interval and ratio is that interval lacks a true zero point (Kranzler, 2018). >> Beth M. Huebner, Timothy S. Bynum. 500 500 500 500] 278 500 500 278 278 444 278 722 500 500 Given the context of the experiment and research question any variable may change its designation. The first is the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Uniform Crime Report (UCR), which collects information on crimes known to the police and arrests from local and State jurisdictions. Further on, in a normally functioning hip, the ion concentration is expected to decrease to a steady state, whereas (1) Soccer (2) Baseball (3) Basketball (4) Football. <> There are four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. 500 500 500 500 275 500 333 760 276 500 /FirstChar 32 Increases or decreases in reports or in arrests for certain offenses, such as. Understanding victimization and offending in these subgroups, however, can be particularly difficult. Criminal justice helps to improve effectiveness in the justice system, it aims to make sure everything is done correctly and all . Levels of Measurement - Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology: A Text and Reader Levels of Measurement There are four levels of measurement for variables, starting with nominal. << 722 333 444 667 556 833 667 722 611 722 The use of performance measures provides a way . The Ohio Risk Assessment System (ORAS) is a state-wide tool that consists of a series of assessment tools that measure the likelihood of recidivism at ten different points in the criminal justice system and inform decisions, among others, on pretrial detention, community supervision, institutional intake and community re-entry (Ohio Department . This workshop was designed to consider similarities and differences in the methodological problems encountered by the survey and criminal justice research communities and what might be the best focus for the research community. Most measurement of crime in this country emanates from two major data sources. These data collection systems and measures are routinely used to talk about crime trends and the effect of interventions on crime rates and specific crime types, but because of what is known about the errors in them and what is tacitly assumed about the unknown errorsthat they are even greaterresearchers generally seem uncomfortable about using the available data to draw conclusions. FOR INDIVUDUAL COPIES OF THE FIRST THREE PAPERS, SEE NCJ-035288, 87, AND 89 RESPECTIVELY. Objects are usually placed into mutually exclusive categories or types, and Often the criminal intent element affects a crime's grading. Research shows that criminal justice involvement has a negative effect on people's physical and mental health, 2 - 4 employment and earnings, 5 marriage and family life, 5, 6 and access to housing opportunities, 7 among other areas. \text{Balance sheet accounts:}\\ 3 0 obj HwAt8K, Microsoft Word - Bachman, Stats 4e Ch 2 Discussion Group Problems. /Subtype /Type1 The next level is ordinal. \text{Retained Earnings}&(g)&&\text{Credit}\\ Current Issues in Corrections: Mass Incarceration, 9.14. MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. /Subtype /TrueType The discussions prompted participants to think about the importance of good crime statistics, which according to some participants have never gotten much beyond measures of prevalence and incidence. /CropBox [0 0 612 792] 1 exhibit and 59 references Additional Details Agencies NIJ Date Published: January 1, 2000 endobj To be a good law, a particular punishment or range of punishments must be specified. In addition to discussions of these general points, much of the workshop focused on measurement problems that arise from the existing surveys and, to some degree, on future directions for research to resolve them. Returning to Rehabilitation in the Contemporary Juvenile Justice System, 10.10. There are 4 levels of measurement: Nominal: the data can only be categorized Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero. Performance measures provide benchmarks about whether or not optimum performance by the criminal justice system (and the entities within it) is being realized and, more importantly, whether the system is achieving what it intends to achieve under the evidence-based decision making (EBDM) framework. /CropBox [0 0 612 792] The design and execution of criminal justice research require that the confusion over concepts and reality is removed. Dark or Hidden Figure of Crime, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Develop an understanding of the different data sources used to gather precise and accurate measures of crime, Recognize the difference between official or reported statistics, self-report statistics, and victimization statistics, Evaluate the reliability of statistics and data heard about the criminal justice system. What is the level of measurement for each of the following variables? The independent variable takes the form of an experimental stimulus that is either present or absentthat is, having two attributes. Then we move on to the reliability of measurement, including consideration of true score theory and a variety of reliability estimators. Substantive Law: Monetary Punishment Sentences, 3.11. <>>> Levels of Measurement Central Tendency in Criminal Justice Paper Part I There is a minimum word requirement is a total of 1,300 words. /FontDescriptor 29 0 R Nominal measurement Nominal measurement organizes data by labeling items in mutually exclusive categories. Want to skip ahead? endobj In patients with metal hip implants, cobalt ion levels first increase to a maximum during the running-in phase of the implant. !W8 ZbGKnqoGv v5iX(HQE-GgP#os3['Lk;b/::GOG%=p/xS'{s-4u\:!C 7:dd(C8I+ssf]=XE+CYv{|0Qoez6DIA!M^2JZ@Wxk-`(JQ Provide an in-depth discussion of levels of measurement. >> Participants discussed the need to prioritize these measurement problems, to think carefully about which ones are most important, and to focus on the two or three of primary concern. The researcher should be able to generalize from the sample to the population. Much of the knowledge about reporting errors in crime surveys comes from crosssectional studies. Screening refers to the basic survey methods used to identify cases or subgroups of interest (Morrison, 1985; Thorner and Remein, 1961; U.S. Commission on Chronic Illness, 1957). Comparison of Self-Report and Official Data for Measuring Crime, Appendix B: List of Workshop Participants. Raghunathan developed a framework for obtaining small or local-area estimates of victimization or crime rates by combining information from surveys and administrative data sources. Some important subgroups may not be covered at all (e.g., homeless people), and smaller research studies of crimes against these subgroups often have problems of statistical power because of small sample sizes in most cases. In addition to focusing on improving the validity and reliability of surveys and administrative data, there was some discussion at the workshop about the need to develop and apply credible models. Public Health Monograph #67. The type of causal reasoning is _____ when the causes of a single situation are exhaustively examined and the conclusion is drawn based on exhaustive examination. This phase can take approximately 9-12 months postoperatively. The key standards for measurement quality are _____. Levels of measurement tell us what sorts of information we can gain from the scores assigned to the _____. They are simply for coding purposes, so when this information is input into a statistical package, such as SPSS, Mini Tab, Stata, or SAS, we can use the numbers for analysis. This webinar will discuss the importance of using data to identify problematic patterns that need correction as well as best practices that could be replicated. We must have a clear and accurate understanding of crime in order to create effective policies to combat it or help minimize it. 611 611 333 333 333 333 722 667 722 722 /Author (Bachman) /Keywords (4th Edition; Bachman; Paternoster; Solutions Manual; Statistics for Criminology and Criminal Justice) /LastChar 255 The IRB required her to change the GPA question from ratio (please provide your exact GPA on a 4-point scale) to ordinal (please indicate if you have a GPA of 3.5 to 4.0, 3.0 to 3.49, etc.). 444 444 444 444 278 278 278 278 500 500

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